LIN8002 Module 2: Listening

Activity 1: What have you discovered about the 'listening' process?

Listening is thought to be both a top-down and a bottom-up process. Top-down proccesing allows us to sample aural input and apply meaning based on existing our existing knowledge and experience. Bottom-up processing relates to constructing meaning by decoding the aural input stream as it occurs

Although listening seems to occur as a single, isolated event, it is a sequential or serial process of steps that occur so rapidly as to appear a single event. Aural input is stored, or received, and then organised into constituents. The constituents are refined into propositions, and hence propositional meaning, and the original stored input is then forgotten, or superceded by the propositional meaning.

Listening comprehension is described in part in terms of schemata - existing individual knowledge, memory and experience - and scripts - knowledge of probable squences of events in familiar situations.

How significant is listening in developing language comprehension?

Listening as a process includes elements essential to comprehension, including top-down and bottom-up processing, and the necessity to apply predeveloped schemata and the context-appropriate selection of scripts. Without these elements, language comprehension would not occur, so listening is a critical factor in developing language comprehension.

Activity 2: How do you develop a learner's ability to 'get the gist' of language input while listening?

Oxford and Crookall (1989) contend that 'getting the gist' of meaning (p. 410) before looking up new words in a dictionary is a success strategy for language learning. Loewen (2005) posits that learners "do not necessarily need to understand every word and morpheme to get the gist of an utterance" (p. 364). Hence, learners are probably more successful when the teacher uses strategies to develop 'gist', perhaps over and above strategies for grammar-competence and vocabulary. 'Gist' developing activities such as pre-listening and pre-reading, which provide context and possibly increased learner motivation, prepare the learner for what they are about to encounter.

Authentic listening for doing - what are the essentials of how to listen for a purpose?

Listening for purpose requires sets of listening skills that are determined by the purposes. Using Nunan's (2002, p. 239) examples, listening to a news broadcast for interest and knowledge of local knowledge requires different listening strategies than listening to a briefing on using an unfamiliar piece of machinery. However a common three-point strategy is to listen for gist, then listen for broader concepts, and then listen again for specific details.

References

Loewen, S. (2005) Incidental focus on form and second language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27(3), 361-386.  Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/S0272263105050163.

Nunan, D. (2002). Listening in language learning. In J. Richards & W. Renandya (Eds.) Methodology in language teaching: An anthology of current practice, 238-241. Cambridge University Press.

Oxford, R. and Crookall, D. (1989), Research on Language Learning Strategies: Methods, Findings, and Instructional Issues. The Modern Language Journal, 73, 404–419. Wiley Online Library. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4781.1989.tb05321.x

LIN8002 Module 1: Principles and practice

Activity 1: Principles of language teaching provide the basis for practices that are effective in classrooms. Principles relate directly to engaging learners in ways that are meaningful, motivating and connecting such that learners themselves become aware of strategic ways to communicate in the target language and to develop confidence and identity as a language user. Teachers have to plan to assist students to develop their communicative competence. Diagnosis, treatment and assessment are cornerstones in methodology of language teaching. What principles of language teaching are fundamental in your view?

In my essay submission for this unit I focus on the steady progression of theories on principles of language teaching by leading linguists Berns (1990), Brown (2002) and Ellis (2008), which shows the clearly-emerging focus on learner-centred language teaching. Each theorist posits their own set of principles that are similar, yet distinct.

While much focus is given in the course to the work of Brown, I am aware of the significance of Bern's work on communicative language teaching (CLT).

Berns suggested eight principles of CLT (1990) in which language – whether written or spoken – is seen as a function of, and social tool for, communication. As with first-language, communicative second-language is diverse, with no single prescribed ‘standard’, and with SL acquisition and proficiency being determined inclusive of the learner’s culture and motivation. CLT requires active engagement in “a variety of purposes in all phases of learning” (p. 104) for successful language acquisition. Bern’s principles represent a shift from grammar-, or linguistic-competence of earlier methods to communicative-competence.

How relevant are principles to individual teachers when the setting for language teaching varies so widely?

While teaching and learning settings may vary, the principles of SL teaching should be universal in that they cater to learners as unique individuals (Ellis, 2008, p. 5), holistically adapting teaching to the circumstance, environment, and culture of the learner.

What is the impact of a principles approach for teachers who are convinced that their role is to apply a traditional methods of language teaching?

Linguistics has shifted focus from defined methods that employ set strategies to a greater attention on principles that consider the needs of the individual student, including and not limited to defining SL acquisition success in terms of the student’s motivation and expectation, and a greater focus on communicative competence. The shift of focus from grammar-competence to communicative-competence is about the student, creating student-centred learning. Therefore the principles are critical to modern SL teachers - it is self-evident that teaching based on aging methods will continue to produce the same results of learners who know about a language, but cannot use the language.

Activity 2: Qualities of language teaching are evident in learner-centred approaches to teaching. From the 30 characteristics provided in the guide (1.8), discuss one or two that you value. Explain their importance.

Good Language Teaching Characteristics Technical knowledge Understands the linguistic systems of English phonology, grammar, and discourse. Comprehensively grasps basic principles of language learning and teaching. Has fluent competence in speaking, writing, listening to, and reading English. Knows through experience what it is like to learn a foreign language. Understands the close connection between language and culture. Keeps up with the field through regular reading and conference/workshop attendance. Pedagogical skills Has a well though out, informed approach to language teaching. Understands and has experience using a wide variety of techniques. Efficiently designs and executes lesson plans. Monitors lessons as they unfold and makes effective mid-lesson alterations. Effectively perceives students' linguistic needs. Gives optimal feedback to students Stimulates interaction, cooperation, and teamwork in the classroom. Uses appropriate principles of classroom management. Uses effective, clear presentation skills. Creatively adapts textbook material and other audio, visual and mechanical aids. Innovatively creates brand new materials when needed. Uses interactive, intrinsically motivating techniques to create effective tests. Interpersonal skills Is aware of cross-cultural differences and sensitive to students' cultural traditions. Enjoys people, shows enthusiasm, warmth, rapport, and appropriate humour. Values the opinions and abilities of students. Is patient in working with students of lesser abilities. Offers challenges to students of exceptionally high ability. Cooperates harmoniously and candidly with colleagues (fellow teachers). Seeks opportunities to share thoughts, ideas, and techniques with colleagues. Personal qualities Is well organised, conscientious in meeting commitments, and dependable. Is flexible when things go awry. Maintains an inquisitive mind in trying out new ways of teaching. Sets short-term and long-term goals for continued professional growth. Maintains and exemplifies high ethical and moral standards. Brown, 1994, p. 430

While these characteristics are inarguably important attributes of an effective SL teacher, it would seem that a number are 'container classes' for more detailed points. For example point 7, Has a well thought out, informed approach to language teaching, may be a container that includes the remaining points of the Pedagogical skills category - perhaps point 7 could be considered a subtitle for that category - and also a number of points from the Interpersonal skills category.

While not seeking to ignore the importance of any other characteristics and using point 7 as a platform, I am drawn to characteristic 20, Enjoys people, shows enthusiasm, warmth, rapport, and appropriate humour, and also characteristic 1, Understands the linguistic systems of English phonology, grammar, and discourse. To me, these two characteristics are a complementary pairing of the message and the messenger that provide an effective balance for effective SL teaching and learning. A teacher who demonstrates both of these characteristics will establish genuine relationships with their student(s), between students, and also between the the student(s) and the content. The teacher will offer a learner-centred environment (Nunan, 1988, pp. 24-25) that is openly communicative and performance focused, and yet more discretely includes the acquisition of grammar.

Activity 3: Savignon (2002) attempted to define what abilities communicative competence might encompass with an orientation towards discourse competence and social appropriateness in addition to fluency. What is the role of the teacher in a communicative approach to second language teaching?

English-as-a-SL teaching methods in the 1970s reflected the goal that proficiency be expressed as native-like fluency in a given form of English (e.g. American English) and the teaching roles employed in these methods reflected that purpose. As English is now deemed to be a global language (at least for business) it is important to refine and adapt teaching roles to reflect changing goals. In The European Journal of Applied Linguistics and TEFL, Renandya discusses (2012) the role of the teacher in three perspectives:

1. the traditional set of roles of languages teachers based on educational principles, including "motivator, needs analyst, materials developer, organiser of learning activities, monitor of student learning and provider of language output" (p. 65);
2. the set of roles that "may run counter to some of the EIL principles [... including] those that view the teacher as an ambassador of the inner-circle culture, model of the native-speaker variety of English, user of western-based teaching methodology (e.g. communicative language teaching) and promoter of English-only classrooms" (p. 65); and
3. finally a proposed set of teacher roles that reflect appropriate principles of EIL, including "promoter of intercultural competence and multiculturalism, promoter of other varieties of English, critical user of course books and teaching methodology" (p. 65).

Renandya advocates a change of perspective and adoption of this third set of roles in viewing English as a global language.



References

Berns, M. (1990). Contexts of competence, Social and cultural consideration in communicative language teaching. New York, USA: Pleneum Press.

Brown, H. (1994). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents.

Brown, H. (2002). English language teaching in the ‘post-method’ era, Toward better diagnosis, treatment and assessment. In J. Richards & W. Renandya, Methodology in language teaching, An anthology of current practice. pp. 9-18. New York, USA: Cambridge University Press

Ellis, R. (2008). Principles of instructed second language acquisition. CALdigest. Centre for Applied Linguistics. Retrieved 17 July, 2013 from http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/instructed2ndlang.html

Nunan, D. (1988) The learner-centred curriculum: A study in second language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Print. Retrieved July 17, 2013 from http://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=2j6Nj2Gaoc0C&oi

Renandya, W. (2012) Teacher roles in EIL. The European Journal of Applied Linguistics and TEFL, pp. 65-80.